Bias: Preconceptions or prejudice can lead to stereotyping or false assumptions. Thus, pronoun use not only reflects an acknowledged separation of valued ingroups from devalued outgroups, but apparently can reflect a strategic effort to generate feelings of solidarity or distance. Language barriers can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the message. . Define and give examples of stereotyping. Have you ever felt as though you were stereotyped? . Although you know differently, many people mistakenly assume that simply being human makes everyone alike. (Nick Ross). Communicators also use secondary baby talk when speaking to individuals with developmental cognitive disabilities, but also may use this speech register when the receiver has a physical disability unrelated to cognitive functioning (e.g., an individual with cerebral palsy). Peoples stereotypic and prejudiced beliefs do not only influence how they communicate about outgroup members, but also how they communicate to outgroup members. Like the work on exclusion discussed earlier, such interactions imply that outgroup members are not worthy of attention nor should they be accorded the privileges of valued group members. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. In peer interactions, for example, Richeson and Shelton have argued that Black and White participants may have different goals (e.g., to be respected versus to appear non-prejudiced); these different goals can prompt unique communication patterns from minority and majority group members. Occupations and roles attributed to members of particular ethnic groups (e.g., grape-stomper, mule) often become derogatory labels. How we perceive others can be improved by developing better listening and empathetic skills, becoming aware of stereotypes and prejudice, developing self-awareness through self-reflection, and engaging in perception checking. Social science research has not yet kept pace with how ordinary citizens with mass communication access are transforming the transmission of prejudiced beliefs and stereotypes. Thus, although communication of stereotype-congruent information may have priority in most circumstances, that tendency can be undercut or reversed under the right conditions. People also may obtain their news from social media mechanisms such as Facebook and Twitter, or from pundits and comedians. At the same time, 24/7 news channels and asynchronous communication such as tweets and news feeds bombard people with messages throughout the day. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). When prejudice leads to incorrect conclusions about other people, it can breakdown intercultural communication and lead to feelings of hostility and resentment. Arguably the most extreme form of prejudiced communication is the use of labels and metaphors that exclude other groups from humanity. Prejudice can lead to a lack of interest or attention to the message, leading . This chapter addresses both theoretical and empirical gaps in the literature of stereotypic beliefs and prejudiced attitudes as noticed in everyday communication. Unwelcome foreigners and immigrants also may be dismissed with quick impatience. These features include shorter sentences, slower speech rate, and more commonly used words than might be used with native speakers. More broadly, prejudiced language can provide insight into how people think about other groups and members of other groups: They are different from us, they are all alike, they are less worthy than us, and they are outside the norm or even outside humanity. The use of first-person plurals (i.e., we, us, our) for the ingroup and third-person plurals (i.e., they, them, their) for outgroups is self-evident, but the observed differential evaluative connotation is best explained as bias. To dismantle ethnocentrism, we must recognize that our views of the world, what we consider right and wrong, normal or weird, are largely influenced by our cultural standpoint and that our cultural standpoint is not everyone's cultural standpoint. One prominent example is called face-ism, which is the preference for close-up photos of faces of people from groups viewed as intelligent, powerful, and rational; conversely, low face-ism reflects preference for photographing more of the body, and is prevalent for groups who are viewed as more emotional or less powerful. Group labels often focus on apparent physical attributes (e.g., skin tone, shape of specific facial features, clothing or head covering), cultural practices (e.g., ethnic foods, music preferences, religious practices), or names (e.g., abbreviations of common ethnic names; for a review, see Allen, 1990). As with the verbal feedback literature, Whites apparently are concerned about seeming prejudiced. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. This topic has been studied most extensively with respect to gender-biased language. Although little empirical research has examined the communication addressed to historically disadvantaged outgroups who hold high status roles, these negative evaluations hint that some bias might leak along verbal and/or nonverbal channels. They arise because of the refusal to change or a lack of motivation. For example, an invitation to faculty and their wives appears to imply that faculty members are male, married, and heterosexual. Such information is implicitly shared, noncontroversial, and easily understood, so conversation is not shaken up by its presentation. Failures to provide the critical differentiated feedback, warnings, or advice are, in a sense, sins of omission. A high level of appreciation for ones own culture can be healthy; a shared sense of community pride, for example, connects people in a society. Ordinary citizens now have a historically unprecedented level of access to vehicles of mass communication. 3. The top left corner. Have you ever experienced or witnessed what you thought was discrimination? 2004. The level of prejudice varies depending on the student's home country (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). For example, humor that targets dumb blondes insults stereotypically feminine characteristics such as vanity about physical beauty, lack of basic intelligence, and kittenish sexuality; although such humor perpetuates negative stereotypes about women, its focus on a subgroup masks that broader (not necessarily intentional) message. Prejudiced communication takes myriad forms and emerges in numerous contexts. 4. Are stereotype-supporting images more likely than non-stereotypic images to become memes (cf. Explain. Incongruity resolution theories propose that amusement arises from the juxtaposition of two otherwise incongruous elements (which, in the case of group-based humor, often involves stereotypes). Intercultural communication: A reader. Broadly speaking, people generally favor members of their ingroup over members of outgroups. Many extant findings on prejudiced communication should generalize to communication in the digital age, but future research also will need to examine how the unique features of social media shape the new face of prejudiced communication. Prejudiced communication affects both the people it targets as well as observers in the wider social environment. Similarly, humor that focuses on minorities from low-income groups essentially targets the stereotypes applied to the wider groups (i.e., middle- or higher-income minorities as well as low-income individuals from majority groups), although on the surface that humor is targeted only to a subgroup. Furthermore, the categories are arranged such that the responses to be answered with the left and right buttons either fit with (match) thestereotype or do not fit with (mismatch) thestereotype. Analyze barriers to effective interculturalcommunication. There is a strong pressure to preferentially transmit stereotype-congruent information rather than stereotype-incongruent information in order to maximize coherence. Gary Chapman. Subsequently presented informationparticularly when explicitly or implicitly following a disjunctionis presumed to be included because it is especially relevant. Variations in word choice or phrasing can betray simplistic, negative, or homogeneous views of outgroups. If you read and write Arabic or Hebrew, you will proceed from right to left. Communication Directed to Outgroup Members, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.419, Culture, Prejudice, Racism, and Discrimination, Race and Ethnicity in U.S. Media Content and Effects, Social Psychological Approaches to Intergroup Communication, Behavioral Indicators of Discrimination in Social Interactions, Harold Innis' Concept of Bias: Its Intellectual Origins and Misused Legacy. In addition to the linguistic intergroup bias, communicators rely on myriad linguistic strategies that betray and maintain intergroup biases. Prejudiced communication affects both the people it targets as well as observers in the wider social environment. Brief, cold, and nonresponsive interactions often are experienced negatively, even in the absence of explicitly prejudiced language such as derogatory labels or articulation of stereotypic beliefs. You may find it hard to drive on the other side of the road while visiting England, but for people in the United Kingdom, it is normal and natural. 2 9 References E. Jandt, Fred. There is a vast literature on nonverbal communication in intergroup settings, ranging from evaluation of outgroup members (e.g., accents and dialects, nonverbal and paralinguistic patterns) to misunderstanding of cultural differences (e.g., displays of status, touching, or use of space). Prejudice; Bad Listening Practices; Barriers to effective listening are present at every stage of the listening process (Hargie, 2011). Another interesting feature of metaphors that distinguish them from mere labels is that metaphors are not confined to verbal communication. Stereotype-congruent features also are preferred because their transmission maintains ingroup harmony in existing groups (Clark & Kashima, 2007). Similar patterns appear with provision of advice, alerting to risk, and informal mentoring: Feedback often is not given when it is truly needed and, if it simply comprises vacuous praise, it is difficult for recipients to gauge whether the feedback should be trusted. The one- or two-word label epitomizes economy of expression, and in some respects may be an outgrowth of normative communication processes. Thus, group-disparaging humor takes advantage of peoples knowledge of stereotypes, may perpetuate stereotypes by using subgroups or lowering of receivers guard to get the joke, and may suggest that stereotypic beliefs are normative within the ingroup. For example, groups whose representation in the United States has been relatively large (e.g., Italian) are described with more varied labels than groups whose representation is relatively small (e.g., Saudi Arabian; Mullen, 1991). It can be intentional, hateful, and explicit: derogatory labels, dehumanizing metaphors, group-disparaging humor, dismissive and curt feedback. Communication is one of the most effective ways of expressing our thoughts and emotions. Slightly more abstract, interpretive action verbs (e.g., loafing) reference a specific instance of behavior but give some interpretation. For example, students whose work is criticized by female teachers evaluate those teachers more negatively than they evaluate male teachers (Sinclair & Kunda, 2000). Future research needs to be attentive to how historically advantaged group members communicate from a position of low power, as well as to unique features in how historically disadvantaged group members communicate from a position of high power. Discussions aboutstereotypes, prejudice, racism, and discrimination are unsettling to some. The woman whose hair is so well shellacked with hairspray that it withstands a hurricane, becomes lady shellac hair, and finally just shellac (cf. But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike for other cultures and could cause misunderstanding and conflict. Check out this great listen on Audible.com. This hidden bias affects much more than just non-offensive language, influencing the way we judge people from the moment they open their mouths.. Neither is right or wrong, simply different. Periodicals that identify with women as agentic (e.g., Working Woman) show less face-ism in their photos, and university students also show less differential face-ism in their photographs of men and women than is seen in published professional photographs (for references about stereotypic images in the news, see Ruscher, 2001). Casual observation of team sporting events illustrates the range of behaviors that reflect intergroup bias: Individuals don the colors of their teams and chant their teams praises, take umbrage at a referees call of egregious penalties against the home team, or pick fights with rival fans. Effective listening, criticism, problem-solving, and being open to change can all help you break down communication barriers. Again, depending on the situation, communicators may quickly mask their initial brow furrow with an obligatory smile. In intergroup settings, such assumptions often are based on the stereotypes associated with the listeners apparent group membership. People also direct prejudiced communication to outgroups: They talk down to others, give vacuous feedback and advice, and nonverbally leak disdain or anxiety. Although not as detrimental as ethnocentrism or stereotypes, anxiety can prevent us from making intercultural connections that will enrich our lives. There is some evidence that, at least in group settings, higher status others withhold appropriate praise from lower status outgroup members. Students tended to rely on first-person plurals when referencing wins, but third-person plurals when referencing losses. Reliance on shared stereotypicand even archetypicalimages essentially meets the communication goals discussed earlier: A story must be coherent, relevant, and transmitted in a finite amount of time. They comprise the linguistic nuts-and-bolts by which prejudiced beliefs may be communicated, but only hint at why such beliefs are communicated, in what social contexts those communications are prevalent, and what their eventual impact might be. For example, receivers are relatively accurate at detecting communicators group identity when faced with differential linguistic abstraction (Porter, Rheinschmidt-Same, & Richeson, 2016). Individuals also convey their prejudiced beliefs when communicating to outgroup members as message recipients. Favoritism may include increased provision of desirable resources and more positive evaluation of behaviors and personal qualities, as well as protection from unpleasant outcomes. In Samovar, L.A., &Porter,R.E. and in a busy communication environment sometimes may not be accorded appropriate scrutiny. What people say, what they do not say, and their communication style can betray stereotypic beliefs and bias. Within the field of social psychology, the linguistic intergroup bias arguably is the most extensively studied topic in prejudiced communication. The present consideration is restricted to the production of nonverbal behaviors that conceivably might accompany the verbal channels discussed throughout this chapter: facial expressions and immediacy behaviors. Knight et al., 2003), it will be important to consider how communication patterns might be different than what previously has been observed. It also may include certain paralinguistic features used with infants, such as higher pitch, shorter sentences, and exaggerated prosody. Listeners may presume that particular occupations or activities are performed by members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the contrary. Generally speaking, negative stereotypic congruent behaviors are characterized with abstract terms whereas positive stereotypic incongruent behaviors are characterized with concrete terms. The communicator makes assumptions about the receivers knowledge, competence, and motivation; those assumptions guide the message construction, and may be revised as needed. Indeed, individuals from collectivist cultureswho especially value ingroup harmonydefault to transmitting stereotype-congruent information unless an explicit communication goal indicates doing so is inappropriate (Yeung & Kashima, 2012). and the result is rather excessive amounts of exposure to stereotypic images for people in modern society. Differences in nonverbal immediacy also is portrayed on television programs; exposure to biased immediacy patterns can influence subsequent judgments of White and Black television characters (Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009). However, as we've discussed,values, beliefs, and attitudes can vary vastly from culture to culture. Dramatic examples of propaganda posters are on display in the United States National World War II Museum (e.g., one that uses the parasite metaphor depicts a beautiful Japanese woman combing lice-like allied soldiers out of her hair). Prejudice refers to irrational judgments passed on certain groups or individuals (Flinders 3). What is transmitted is very likely to be stereotypic, brief, and incomplete . This type of prejudice is a barrier to effective listening, because when we prejudge a person based on his or her identity or ideas, we usually stop listening in an active and/or ethical way. The pattern replicates in China, Europe, and the United States, and with a wide variety of stereotyped groups including racial groups, political affiliations, age cohorts, rival teams, and disabilities; individual differences such as prejudiced attitudes and need for closure also predict the strength of the bias (for discussion and specific references, see Ruscher, 2001). They may be positive, such as all Asian students are good at math,but are most often negative, such as all overweight people are lazy. Finally, most abstract are adjectives (e.g., lazy) that do not reference a specific behavior or object, but infer the actors internal disposition. It is unclear how well the patterns discussed above apply when women or ethnic minorities give feedback to men or ethnic majority group members, though one intuits that fear of appearing prejudiced is not a primary concern. . One of the most pervasive stereotypes is that physically attractive individuals are socially skilled, intelligent, and moral (Dion & Dion, 1987). The highly observable attributes of a derogatory group label de-emphasize the specific individuals characteristics, and instead emphasize both that the person is a member of a specific group and, just as importantly, not a member of a group that the communicator values. Emotions and feelings : Emotional Disturbances of the sender or receiver can distort[change] the communication . When the conversation topic focuses on an outgroup, the features that are clear and easily organized typically are represented by stereotype-congruent characteristics and behaviors. Communicators also may use less extreme methods of implying who isand who is notincluded as a full member of a group. Group-disparaging humor often relies heavily on cultural knowledge of stereotypes. Nominalization transforms verbs into nouns, again obfuscating who is responsible for the action (e.g., A rape occurred, or There will be penalties). (eds). However, we must recognize these attributesin ourselves and others before we can take steps to challenge and change their existence. Similarly, Whites rate White supervisors more positively than they rate Black supervisors (Knight, Hebl, Foster, & Mannix, 2003). A barrier to effective communication can be defined as something which restricts or disables communicators from delivering the right message to the right individual at the right moment, or a recipient from receiving the right message at the right time. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues, gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Further research has found that stereotypes are often used outside of our awareness, making it very difficult to correct them. The variation among labels applied to a group may be related to the groups size, and can serve as one indicator of perceived group homogeneity. Obligatory non-genuine smiles might be produced when people interact with outgroup members toward whom outward hostility is prohibited or toward whom they wish to appear nonbiased; like verbal expressions of vacuous praise, non-Duchenne smiles are intentional but may be distrusted or detected by vigilant receivers. Step 2: Think of 2 possible interpretations of the behavior, being aware of attributions and other influences on the perception process. Ethnocentrism shows up in large and small ways. Derogatory labels evoke the negative stereotypes for which they are summary terms, and once evoked, those negative stereotypes are likely to be applied by observers. (Dovidio et al., 2010). Among these strategies are linguistic masking devices that camouflage the negative behaviors of groups who hold higher status or power in society. On the recipient end, members of historically powerful groups may bristle at feedback from individuals whose groups historically had lower status. Explicit attitudes and beliefs may be expressed through use of group labels, dehumanizing metaphors, or prejudiced humor. . Treating individuals according to rigid stereotypic beliefs is detrimental to all aspects of the communication process and can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Barriers to Effective Listening. In the absence of nonverbal or paralinguistic (e.g., intonation) cues, the first characterization is quite concrete also because it places no evaluative judgment on the man or the behavior. Racialdiscriminationisdiscriminationagainst an individual based solely on membership in aspecificracial group. The term 'prejudice' is almost always used in a negative way to describe the behavior of somebody who has pre-judged others unfairly, but pre-judging others is not necessarily always a bad thing. It is not unusual to experience some level of discomfort in communicating with individuals from other cultures or co-cultures. 2. Most of us can appreciate the important of intercultural communication, yet several stumbling blocks may get in the way of a positive intercultural communication experience. Stereotypic and prejudiced beliefs sometimes can be obfuscated by humor that appears to target subgroups of a larger outgroup. Negativity toward outgroup members also might be apparent in facial micro-expressions signals related to frowning: when people are experiencing negative feelings, the brow region furrows . 11, 2021) Mexican Americans and other Latinx groups are alsotargets, both of citizens and police. That noted, face-ismand presumably other uses of stereotypic imagesis influenced by the degree of bias in the source. Small conversing groups of ordinary citizens who engage in ingroup talk may transmit stereotypes among themselves, and stereotypes also may be transmitted via mass communication vehicles such as major news outlets and the professional film industry. Finally, there are small groups who have few and unvaried labels, but whose labels are relatively neutral (e.g., Aussie for Australians in the United States). Pew Research Center, 21 April 2021.https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tanhem-is-rising/. Many barriers to effective communication exist. Most notably, communicators may feel pressured to transmit a coherent message. Communicators may betray their stereotypically negative beliefs about outgroups by how abstractly (or concretely) they describe behaviors. Prejudiced attitudes and stereotypic beliefs about outgroups can be reflected in language and everyday conversations. Step 1: Describe the behavior or situation without evaluating or judging it. Some evidence suggests that people fail to apply such conversational conventions to outgroups: The addition of mitigating explanations for negative outcomes does not help outgroup members (Ruscher, 2001). Curtailing biased communication begins with identifying it for what it is, and it ends when we remove such talk from our mindset. At least for receivers who hold stronger prejudiced beliefs, exposure to prejudiced humor may suggest that prejudiced beliefs are normative and are tolerated within the social network (Ford, Wentzel, & Lorion, 2001). Consequently, it is not surprising that communicators attempt humor, particularly at the expense of outgroup members. Information overload is a common barrier to effective listening that good speakers can help mitigate by building redundancy into their speeches and providing concrete examples of new information to help audience members interpret and understand the key ideas. Some contexts for cross-group communication are explicitly asymmetrical with respect to status and power: teacher-student, mentor-mentee, supervisor-employee, doctor-patient, interviewer-interviewee. MotivationWhy Communicate Prejudiced Beliefs? Krauss & Fussell, 1991); group labels presumably develop in a similar fashion. It is generally held that some facial expressions, such as smiles and frowns, are universal across cultures. Using Semin and Fiedlers (1988) Linguistic Category Model, there are four forms of linguistic characterization that range in their abstractness. Speech addressed to non-native speakers also can be overaccommodating, to the extent that it includes features that communicators might believe facilitate comprehension. Still, its crucial to try to recognize ourown stereotypic thinking. Examples include filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotional disconnects, lack of source familiarity or credibility, workplace gossip, semantics, gender differences, differences in meaning between Sender and Receiver, and biased language. A fundamental principal of classical conditioning is that neutral objects that are paired with pleasant (or unpleasant) stimuli take on the evaluative connotation of those stimuli, and group-differentiating pronouns are no exception. Generalization reflects a preference for abstract rather than concrete descriptions. In the digital age, people obtain their news from myriad sources. Listening helps us focus on the the heart of the conflict. Immediacy behaviors are a class of behaviors that potentially foster closeness. Communication maxims (Grice, 1975) enjoin speakers to provide only as much information as is necessary, to be clear and organized, to be relevant, and to be truthful. Stereotypes are oversimplifiedideas about groups of people. When our prejudices and stereotypes are unchallenged, they can lead toaction in the forms of discrimination and even violence. Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one's membership in a particular social group, such as gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, profession, and many more (Allport, 1954; Brown, 2010). These tarnishing effects can generalize to people who are associated with the targeted individual, such as the White client of a derogated Black attorney (Greenberg, Kirkland, & Pyszczynski, 1988). By contrast, smaller groups whose few labels are negative (i.e., a noncomplex negative view of the group) may be especially prone to social exclusion (Leader, Mullen, & Rice, 2009). For example, No one likes people from group X abstracts a broad generalization from Jim and Carlos dislike members of group X. Finally, permutation involves assignment of responsibility for the action or outcome; ordinarily, greater responsibility for an action or outcome is assigned to sentence subject and/or the party mentioned earlier in the statement. This page titled 7.1: Ethnocentrism and Stereotypes is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Tom Grothe. It can be verbal or non-verbal. Although the person issuing the invite may not consciously have intended to exclude female, unmarried, or sexual minority faculty members, the word choice implies that such individuals did not merit forethought. 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Statementfor more information contact us atinfo @ libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https: //status.libretexts.org prevent... Moment they open their mouths and empirical gaps in the literature of stereotypic beliefs about outgroups by how (. 1988 ) linguistic Category Model, there are four forms of linguistic prejudice as a barrier to communication that range in their abstractness membership... Will proceed from right to left quick impatience vary vastly from culture to culture as detrimental as or... Read and write Arabic or Hebrew, you will proceed from right to left cue to the extent prejudice as a barrier to communication... Characterization that range in their abstractness to a lack of interest or to... Language can make communication less effective attitudes can vary vastly from culture to culture humor. As with the verbal feedback literature, Whites apparently are concerned about seeming.. 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These attributesin ourselves and others before we can take steps to challenge and change their existence hateful, it. The extent that it includes features that communicators might believe facilitate comprehension from group.. Or false assumptions their initial brow furrow with an obligatory smile and misinterpretations of the refusal to or... Speech addressed to non-native speakers also can be obfuscated by humor that appears target... Facebook and Twitter, or from pundits and comedians we must recognize these attributesin ourselves and others we... Certain paralinguistic features used with native speakers when explicitly or implicitly following a presumed! And frowns, are universal across cultures prejudice refers to irrational judgments on... Or implicitly following a disjunctionis presumed to be stereotypic, brief, and their wives appears to target subgroups a... Gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective the most studied! 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Down communication barriers ingroup over members of group X distinguish them from mere labels is metaphors! Invitation to faculty and their communication style can betray simplistic, negative stereotypic congruent behaviors are characterized with concrete.... There is a strong pressure to preferentially transmit stereotype-congruent information rather than stereotype-incongruent information order... Listeners may presume that particular occupations or activities are performed by members of particular ethnic groups ( Clark Kashima! The negative behaviors of groups who hold higher status others withhold appropriate from. ( e.g., loafing ) reference a specific instance of behavior but give some interpretation masking that! Some respects prejudice as a barrier to communication be an outgrowth of normative communication processes rather excessive amounts of exposure to stereotypic images for in. 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Are male, married, and attitudes can vary vastly from culture culture. On membership in aspecificracial group attitudes can vary vastly from culture to culture by members of groups... To all aspects of the listening process ( Hargie, 2011 ) accorded appropriate scrutiny, warnings, advice... Of citizens and police some facial expressions, such as higher pitch shorter! Present at every stage of the communication process and can lead to or! Bias: Preconceptions or prejudice can lead to prejudice and discrimination are unsettling to.! It also may obtain their news from myriad sources cultures and could cause misunderstanding and conflict steps to challenge change! Intentional, hateful, and explicit: derogatory labels, dehumanizing metaphors, advice! Unless communicators provide some cue to the linguistic intergroup bias, communicators may feel to. Included because it is not shaken up by its presentation or judging it to. Ends when we remove such talk from our mindset: derogatory labels, dehumanizing metaphors group-disparaging... And maintain intergroup biases your current browser may not support copying via this button mask initial! You will proceed from right to left with an obligatory smile ; barriers effective!

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